Schizophrenia and Shamanism

I went to the British Library to read this article and it was so interesting I ended up noting the whole thing down. I have (perhaps a little cheekily) copied it up here. I haven't included references.

Schizophrenia and the origins of shamanism among the Kawtikuti Martitime cultures of northwest North America: A hypothesis
Rif S. El-Mallakch, mood disorders research programme, department of psychiatry and behavioural sciences, University of Louiseville School of Medicine.


Dear Editors

19th Century anthropological field workers investigating Siberian natives were the first to introduce the idea that the shamans of this culture were 'psychopathic' individuals, whose psychopathology contributed to their success as shamans (refs). Subsequent investigations by psychologists and psychiatrists were limited, inconclusive or negative (refs).

The concept of shamanism has been poorly defined. The term "shaman" represents a wide range of medical, religious and political healers, practitioners and leaders in various cultures world-wide (refs). Consequently the term takes its meaning only when placed in the context of both time and place.

This paper will focus on shamans in the late 19th and early 20th century maritime cultures of North West North America. These cultures were relatively intact when anthropologic workers documented their cultures in the 1800s and 1900s. The shamens of this area served primarily as communicators with the spirits. Because of their unique and valuable ability, they could, at times, heal, foretell future events, and advise in individual and community decisions (refs).

In this culture, there were two general types or levels of shaman: the family and the professional shaman (refs). The family shaman was usually a family member with several relatives and, perhaps, an extended small community. Professional shaman usually lived in larger communities and served all. It is generally believed that professional shamanism evolved from the tradition of family shaman (refs), but the origins of family shamanism are much more obscure.

1. Pacific North West Maritime Cultures
Family shamans were men or women who were indistinguishable from their peers during their early development. Would-be shamans often became evident in late adolescence and early adulthood (Refs). They would endure a period of severe psychological distress that would lead the would-be shaman to seek solitude. In the depths of their distress they would either hear or see (or both) a spirit. This experience was often their salvation. From that point on, the shaman would have special contact with 'their' spirit. Some shamans, especially those connected with very powerful spirits, would be able to communicate with more than one spirit (refs).

Because of their special relationship with their spirit, these individuals would serve as family shamans whose essential service was communication with the spirits. They were sought when a spirit with whom they could communicate was felt to be involved in an event or process (refs). Family shamans were neither primary healers nor priests.

Family shamans never charged directly for their services. However they were generally 'cared for' by their family or community. This was essential since most family shamans were inept at performing the tasks needed for survival (ref).

Professional shamans probably evolved from the family shaman tradition (refs). They served larger communities and generally received some compensation for their activities. Although a mystical experience was still a necessary start to their shamanic career, there are few other similarities to family shamans. Apprenticeship among the professional shaman was a common practice. Frequently individuals with epileptic seizures were purposely recruited (refs). There is considerable evidence that professional shamans deliberately deceived or fabricated their supernatural feats (refs).

Professional shamans generally gained more status and wielded considerably more power than the family shamans. It is thus not surprising that anthropologic field workers generally sought and studied the professional shamans (refs).

2. Synthesis
An examination of the patterns of life histories of family shaman and modern schizophrenics reveals striking similarities. The prevalence of shamans in small communities is similar to most estimates of the prevalence of schizophrenia - roughly one per 100 - 150 individuals. The boringly unremarkable childhood and dramatically tumultuous early adulthood are striking. The requisite mystical (psychotic?) experience in the setting of severe psychological distress is very reminiscent of the schizophrenic's first psychotic break. Unlike the modern schizophrenic, the would-be family shaman finds that he / she is frequently sought out and respected by others. Despite the dramatically different cultural response, the family shaman and modern schizophrenic go on to lead somewhat similar lives. Both choose to isolate themselves and keep interactions with others to a minimum, psychotic or mystical experiences continue to occur throughout most of their lives. An apparent lack of initiative, and inability to blend into the mainstream of life and its demands, makes both shaman and schizophrenic incapable of performing the functions of everyday life. Members of the respective communities must care for these individuals (refs).

3. Summary
The dramatic failure of schizophrenics to assimilate into modern western style culture creates a subtle prejudice against the illness. Consequently, there is a visceral response when the word is used. This makes objective  comparisons regarding other cultures difficult, especially when there is a heightened acceptance of cultural differences. Nonetheless, the observation that shaman of some cultures suffer from some forms of psychopathology, even when viewed in the context of their own cultures, has been made repeatedly. Unfortunately, a series of historical circumstances prevented objective examination of this hypothesis. In the late 19th and early 20th century North West North American Maritime cultures there existed two types of shamans, a fact not appreciated in previous investigations of this question (refs). It appears that one type of shaman - the family shaman - has sufficient similarities with modern schizophrenics to support the hypothesis that psychopathology may have been a force in the origin of shamanism in that culture.